熔普世价值之剑,铸中华复兴之犁
鹰派中国近代史前言
熔普世价值之剑,铸中华复兴之犁
肃慎书室主人
2008年,三川大震,举国悲痛,美国女演员萨朗·斯通(Sharon Stone)幸灾乐祸,公然声称这次伤亡惨重的地震是“报应”:
Stone, 50, who was speaking to reporters at the Cannes film festival, criticised the Chinese government's actions in Tibet and directly linked them to the disaster: "I've been concerned about how should we deal with the Olympics, because they are not being nice to the Dalai Lama, who is a good friend of mine," she said. "And then all this earthquake and all this stuff happened, and I thought, is that karma - when you're not nice that the bad things happen to you?"
某些华人伪自由主义者乘机抛出了“普世价值”这样一个缺乏学术依据,没有意涵界定的杜撰概念,由于投合了灾难过后部分国人的宗教情感需求,并配合了美国利用经济、军事实力,在意识形态领域咄咄逼人,从而提高美国政治实力的“巧实力”(smart power)外交战略,因而风行一时。
当前中国思想界的混乱,集中体现于左右两翼各执一偏,势同水火。尤其在所有制、民主进程、全球化等问题上,聚讼纷纭。左右对立,首先是社会断裂在思想领域的直观反映。左右的本义是贫富:在欧洲,左右之分源于法国大革命,法王的三级会议里,教士和贵族居右,第三等级居左;在古代中国,贫民也多居于“闾左”。左右对立,还和中国思想者普遍缺乏科学精神有关。严复在《原强》中写道:
格致之事不先,偏颇之私未尽,生心害政,未有不贻误家国者也。是故欲为群学,必先有事於诸学焉。不为数学、名学,则吾心不足以察不遁之理,必然之数也;不为力学、质学,则不足以审因果之相生,功效之互待也。名、数、力、质四者之学已治矣,然吾心之用,犹仅察於寡而或荧於纷,仅察於近而或迷於远也,故必广之以天、地二学焉。盖於名、数知万物之成法,於力、质得化机之殊能,尤必藉天、地二学,各合而观之,而後有以见物化之成迹。名、数虚,於天、地徵其实,力、质分,於天、地会其全,夫而後有以知成物之悠久,杂物之博大,与夫化物之蕃变也。
中国农耕帝国消解後,儒教失去了政治指导意义。近年来“新儒家”们的政治努力,荒诞滑稽,不值一哂。对儒教,也必须实行“政教分离”:一方面,国家鼓励民间建立崇拜“上天”“孔子”的宗教会馆,维系传统,化民易俗;另一方面,国家必须对儒家思想中“天人感应”“亲亲”“无讼”等非近代的东西弃若敝屣。
“普世价值”气焰熏天,是欧美操纵中国事务的有力工具,但也逼迫国人努力求索近代以来西方文明致胜的关键所在。鲁迅从日本“拿来”了“中国劣根性”(the inferiority of the Chinese),其文章经官方提倡,充斥教材,很多要求背诵。教师讲解,累得口角流沫;学生笔录,累得手肘生胝。六十年光阴过去了,所谓的国民性格不但全然没有得到“疗救”,反而变本加厉,愈演愈烈。这一“鲁迅悖论”雄辩地证明,晚清以来的学人们由反思“器物层”,进而反思“制度层”,直到反思“文化层”,实属妄自菲薄,自残自虐。
伟大的历史学家斯塔夫里阿诺斯(Stavrianos)把近代以来欧洲政治革命的思想成果概括为自由主义(liberalism)、社会主义(socialism)和民族主义(nationalism)。由于这三种主义成效卓著,因而成为事实上的普世价值(universal values)。
这三种主义——自由主义、社会主义和民族主义——是欧洲政治革命的主要成分。它们共同激励着欧洲各民族越来越多的阶层行动起来,并赋予这些阶层以世界上任何地区都无法与之相比的推动力和凝聚力。这样,政治革命就同科学革命和经济革命一道对欧洲统治世界发挥了关键作用。当欧洲人开始向海外扩张时,他们遇到了统治者和被统治者之间关系不怎么和谐的一些社会。民众的冷淡——他们缺乏对自己政府的认同感——可以解释欧洲人为何能够轻松地在一个又一个地区建立并维持他们的统治。
These three creeds -- liberalism, socialism, and nationalism -- are the principal components of Europe's political revolution. Together they galvanized into action broader and broader strata of the peoples of Europe, giving them a dynamism and a cohesiveness unequaled in any other portion of the globe. In this way the political revolution, like the scientific and the economic revolutions, contributed vitally to Europe's world domination. When the Europeans began to expand overseas, they encountered societies where there was little rapport between rulers and ruled. The apathy of the masses -- their lack of identification with their governments -- explains why in region after region the Europeans were able to establish and to maintain their rule with little difficulty.
“民族国家”较之“阶级国家”和“帝国”,是更稳定的常态。哈佛大学约翰·肯尼迪政治学院教授斯蒂芬·沃尔特(Stephen M. Walt)解释道:
各个民族因为是在一个竞争的、有时又是危险的世界里求生,所以总是试图维护其身份和文化价值观。很多例子说明,最好的办法就是建立自己的国家,这是因为那些没有自己国家的种族或民族常常会被征服、被融合和被同化。
同样,现代的国家也有很强的动机去推动民族的统一换句话说就是培育民族主义——因为假使国家拥有一群忠诚而又团结的人愿意为国牺牲,那么国家的实力和应对外部威胁的能力就会大大增强。总之,在一个国际政治派别争夺激烈的世界里,民族渴望拥有自己的国家,国家渴望在民众中培养共同的民族身份。这两种动力合起来就形成了一种长期的趋势,造就了越来越多的独立的民族国家。(http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/07/15/the_enduring_power_of_nationalism?page=full)
在民族国家中,政权成为“公权力”,满足了民族全体自发的秩序需求。迈克尔·曼(Michael Mann)写道:
在追逐其目标的过程中,人类加入了彼此合作的、集体的权力关系。但在落实集体目标的过程中,社会组织和劳动分工确立了。组织和职能分工具有一种导向个体性权力的内在趋势,这种趋势是源于管理和协调的需要。劳动分工是靠不住的:尽管它涉及各种职能的专门化,但还是在上者监督和指导全体。那些处于监督和协调地位的人享有对池人的巨大组织优势。互动和通讯网络实际上是以他们的作用为中心,就像在每家现代公司都有的组织图中很容易看到的东西一样。这种图表允许在上者控制整个组织,并且阻止在下者分享这种控制。它使那些在上者能够为了落实集体目标而启动机构。尽管任何人都可能拒绝服从,但可能缺少确立替换机构以落实其目标的机会。
In pursuit of their goals, humans enter into cooperative, collective power relations with one another. But in implementing collective goals, social organization and a division of labor are set up. Organization and division of function carry an inherent tendency to distributive power, deriving from supervision and coordination. For the division of labor is deceptive: Although it involves specialization of function at all levels, the top overlooks and directs the whole. Those who occupy supervisory and coordinating positions have an immense organizational superiority over the others. The interaction and communication networks actually center on their function, as can be seen easily enough in the organization chart possessed by every modern firm. The chart allows superiors to control the entire organization, and it prevents those at the bottom from sharing in this control. It enables those at the top to set in motion machinery for implementing collective goals. Though anyone can refuse to obey, opportunities are probably lacking for establishing alternative machinery for implementing their goals.
司马迁也朦胧意识到人类对秩序的自发追求:“洋洋美德乎!宰制万物,役使群众,岂人力也哉?”(美好盛大是礼的优良品格啊!主宰统制天地万物,奴役驱使广大群众,难道是人的强力所能做到的吗?)
“民族国家”中的某一群体,只可以影响政权,而不可以俘获政权。否则月满则亏,器盈而攲,自蹈凶危败亡。即使不发生内溃,也会无力抵御外部竞争。兹举正反数例例:
[例一,春秋卫国]冬十二月,狄人伐卫。卫懿公好鹤,鹤有乘轩者。将战,国人受甲者皆曰:“使鹤,鹤实有禄位,余焉能战!” (左传•闵公二年,最后卫国兵败国“灭”。)
[例二,早期罗马]斗争开始于公元前5世纪初。这时罗马不仅在北方有强敌伊达拉里亚人和高卢人,而且和邻近的埃魁人、沃尔斯奇人也常有战事。平民利用外敌压境为发动斗争的机会,往往携带武装离开罗马,拒不应敌。这种斗争方式称为“撤离”运动。第一次撤离运动相传发生于公元前494年。罗马因平民离去而兵力锐减,生产停滞,贵族的田庄还遭到破坏。军事和经济上的不利形势,迫使贵族对平民让步。(世界通史)
[例三,曹刿论战]问:“何以战?”公曰:“衣食所安,弗敢专也,必以分人。”对曰:“小惠未遍,民弗从也。”公曰:“牺牲玉帛,弗敢加也,必以信。”对曰:“小信未孚,神弗福也。”公曰:“小大之狱,虽不能察,必以情。”对曰:“忠之属也,可以一战。战则请从。”(左传•庄公十年,鲁君因为执行民族国家“法”的职能而保住权力)
自由主义、社会主义和民族主义,都应该通过影响而非垄断政权的方式,来干预现实。
自由主义的持有主体应该是资产阶级。斯塔夫里阿诺斯写道:
在中世纪初期西欧存在着三个界限分明的社会集团:组成军事贵族阶层的贵族、构成教会和知识显贵集团的教士和以自己的劳动供养以上两个阶级的农民。随着商业的发展,这种状况由于一个新成分即城市资产阶级的出现而开始改变。随着这一阶级在财富和人数上的增长,它对各封建阶层的特权和妨碍自由市场经济发展的许多限制变得日益不满。于是它就与民族君主政权结成了一个互惠的联盟:国王们从资产阶级那里获得财政支援,以维护其对各封建阶层的权威,而资产阶级则从整个王国建立法律和秩序这一点中获益。这种联盟一直持续到不断成长的中产阶级感到厌烦时为止——他们为了摆脱王室对商业的种种限制,摆脱日渐增加的赋税,摆脱对宗教信仰自由的种种限制,转而起来反对国王。中产阶级的这些目标是英国革命、美国革命和法国革命中的重要因素,而这些革命的成功也意味着古典自由主义——为资产阶级的利益和目标提供了合理解释的新的意识形态——的成功。在这一意义上,自由主义也许可被称为不断壮大的中产阶级打算借以获得它所指望得到的利益和权力的特殊纲领。
During the early medieva1 period, there were three well-defined social groups in western Europe: the nobility, who constituted a military aristocracy; the clergy, who formed an ecclesiastical and intellectual elite; and the peasants, who labored to support the two upper classes. With the development of commerce, the profile of the medieva1 social order began gradually to change with the appearance of a new element, the urban bourgeoisie. As this class grew in wealth and numbers, it became more and more discontented with the special privileges of the feudal orders and with the numerous restrictions that hampered the development of a free-market economy. Accordingly, the bourgeoisie made a mutually beneficial alliance with the national monarchies. The kings obtained financial support from the bourgeoisie and so were able to assert their authority over the feudal orders. The bourgeoisie in return profited from the establishment of law and order throughout the royal domains. The alliance lasted until it became irksome for the constantly growing middle class. Then the middle class turned against the kings to free itself from royal restrictions on commerce, from a growing burden of taxation, and from restraints on religious freedom. These objectives were important factors in the English, American, and French revolutions. The success of these revolutions also meant the success of classical liberalism -- the new ideology that provided a rationalization for bourgeois interests and objectives. In this sense, liberalism may be defined as the particular program by which the growing middle class proposed to get for itself the benefits and control it was aiming for.
中国农耕帝国消解于晚清的太平天国战争,为了在四海鼎沸、八国交侵的险恶局面中重建秩序,极权主义成为中国的必然选择。只有极权主义,才能以战去战,整合松懈涣散的中国百姓;只有权权主义,才能以毒攻毒,遏制侵略俘获的狼子野心。极权主义不仅仅是独裁,更是独裁者对军事权力、政治权力、经济权力、意识形态权力的全方位掌握;极权主义在大陆彻底铲除了本不壮大的资产阶级。因而,中国的自由主义,当前存在着主体缺失的痼疾,其持有者多为知识分子。中国知识分子,没有经过近代经济革命、科技革命和政治革命的洗礼,其思想作风类似于农耕帝国的古典“士大夫”:“四民之中,各有生计,农工自食其力者也,商贾各以其赢以易食者也,士亦挟其长佣书授徒以易食者也。”(《生计篇》,洪亮吉)也类似于欧洲“构成教会和知识显贵集团的教士”(the clergy, who formed an ecclesiastical and intellectual elite)。
中国“准自由主义”者,懵懂于中外历史与中外现实,欠缺政治学素养,盲信西方的伪善与诡辩,无视西方的贪婪与血腥,刻意营造牧歌式的西方文明观。聊举他们对美国开国元勋乔治·华盛顿的认识迷误,以斥其陋。在美国“华盛顿纪念碑”上,有一方中国清代咸丰三年赠送的刻石,镌文为:
钦命福建巡抚部院大中丞徐继畬所著《瀛环志略》曰,“按,华盛顿,异人也。起事勇於胜广,割据雄於曹刘。既已提三尺剑,开疆万里,乃不僭位号,不传子孙,而创为推举之法,几於天下为公,骎骎乎三代之遗意。其治国崇让善俗,不尚武功,亦迥与诸国异。余尝见其画像,气貌雄毅绝伦。呜呼!可不谓人杰矣哉。”“米利坚合众国以为国,幅员万里,不设王侯之号,不循世及之规,公器付之公论,创古今未有之局,一何奇也!泰西古今人物,能不以华盛顿为称首哉!”
把合众国的开创归因为个人品德,是多么无识而危险!布尔斯廷的叙述有助于理解为什么华盛顿不称王称帝——因为他没有常备军:
甚至华盛顿的耐心也有限度。但是,由于地方的自大势难克服,他便学着同这种情绪共处,并设法在共同的事业中利用它。华盛顿在1776年底写道:“自从我从事军务以来,我一直努力削弱各种地方情感和地区(即州)差别,用美利坚这个更大的名字统称一切。但我发现要克服偏见是不可能的。在新的建制下,我看最好是激起一种竞争的情绪。为此,最好由各州提出——虽然不是任命——各州旅长的人选。”1780年,他答复大陆会议就晋升和军阶问题提出的质询时说:“在任何情况下,如果我们的军队是一支军队或十三支联合起来共同防御的军队,那末解决你们的问题就没有困难。可是我们仅仅偶尔是这样。如果我说我们有时既不是一支军队也不是十三支军队,而是两者的棍合,我想也不会有多大的错误。” (美国人——殖民地历程,丹尼尔·J·布尔斯廷,上海译文出版社,1997)
Even Washington''s patience wore thin; but since local prides were not to be overcome, he learned to live with them and somehow to harness them in the common cause. "I have labored, ever since I have been in the service," Washington wrote at the end of 1776, "to discourage all kinds of local attachments and distinctions of country [i.e. of State], denominating the whole by the greater name of American, but I have found it impossible to overcome prejudices; and, under the new establishment, I conceive it best to stir up an emulation; in order to do which would it not be better for each State to furnish, though not to appoint, their own brigadiers?" In 1780, to the inquiries of the Congress about his problems of promotion and rank, he replied: "If in all cases ours was one army, or thirteen armies allied for the common defence, there would be no difficulty in solving your question; but we are occasionally both, and I should not be much out if I were to say, that we are sometimes neither, but a compound of both" (The American The Colonial Experience, Daniel J Boorstin)
短期入伍(有时少到只有三个月)的规定,表明了对职业常备军的普遍担心和战争胜利后军队将成为赘疣的假设。华盛顿多次抱怨说问题症结就在这里。例如,他在从位于帕塞伊克附近的司令部写给一些州的一封通告(1780年10月18日)中说:
我笃信,战争的持久和我们迄今所经历的极大部分不幸与混乱,主要应归答于短期服役的规定。……一支人数不多的精干的部队,能具备军事活动所必要的纪律而组成常备军的建制,就能够抵抗敌人。它无可比拟地要比一大帮民兵好。民兵在某些时期里不在战场,而是在走向战场和离开战场的途中。由于缺乏坚韧性是所有民兵的特征,也由于对民兵不能行使强制手段,因而要使绝大部分民兵留下继续服役,甚至只服满他们被征召时原定的服役期,也总是行不通的。而且,服役期通常太短,以致我们有一大部分时间要养两套人,给两套人的薪饷,一套是正在前往军队的人,另一套是正在离开军队的人。(美国人——殖民地历程,丹尼尔·J·布尔斯廷,上海译文出版社,1997)
Short-term enlistments (sometimes for as little as three months) expressed both the widespread fear of a professional standing army and the assumption that an army would be superfluous the day after the war was won. Washington repeatedly complained that this was the core of his problem. For example, in a circular (Oct. 18, 1780) to the several States from his headquarters near Passaic, he said:
I am religiously persuaded that the duration of the war, and the greatest part of the Misfortunes, and perplexities we have hitherto experienced, are chiefly to be attributed to temporary inlistments. ... A moderate, compact force, on a permanent establishment capable of acquiring the discipline essential to military operations, would have been able to make head against the Enemy, without comparison better than the throngs of Militia, which have been at certain periods not in the feild, but on their way to, and from the feild: for from that want of perseverance which characterises all Militia, and of that coercion which cannot be exercised upon them it has always been found impracticable to detain the greatest part of them in service even for the term, for which they have been called out; and this has been commonly so short, that we have had a great proportion of the time, two sets of men to feed and pay, one coming to the Army, and the other going from it. (The American The Colonial Experience, Daniel J Boorstin)
甚至首开中国西学先河的严复,晚年也震惊于欧战,对西方文明有了更清醒的认识:“不佞垂老,亲见脂那七年之民国与欧罗巴四年亘古未有之血战,觉彼族三百年之进化,只做到‘利己杀人,寡廉鲜耻’八个字。回观孔孟之道,真量同天地,泽被寰区。此不独吾言为然,即泰西有思想人亦渐觉其为如此矣。”(《与熊纯如书》(七十五),《严复集》第3册第692页)
由于中国“准自由主义者”们对西方“抛来”的思潮盲从盲信,众所周知,已经在金融领域给中国造成浩大灾难。聊举被某些人奉为圭臬的“诺贝尔经济学奖”,以斥其非。
“诺贝尔经济学奖”,2006年至今其全称是“瑞典国家银行纪念阿尔弗雷德·诺贝尔经济学奖”(The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel)此奖项并不属于诺贝尔遗嘱中所提到的五大奖励领域之一,而是由瑞典国家银行在1968年为纪念诺贝尔而增设的。由于获奖者普遍具有反社会主义、反民族主义倾向,也由于经济学并非科学,所以该奖项始终饱受批评和质疑。诺贝尔侄孙彼得·诺贝尔称其为“占诺贝尔之巢的布谷鸟”:“The Bank of Sweden, which set up this prize, is like a cuckoo that laid its egg in the nest of another decent bird, the Nobel Prize.”(http://www.hazelhenderson.com/editorials/cuckoos_egg_in_nobel_prize_nest.html)
中国“准自由主义”者们偏听偏信西方的某些经济学派,所以盲目反对一切国有制,而不愿纡尊降贵读一读《私有化的局限》;盲目宣扬全球化,而不愿读一读《一个经济杀手的自白》;盲目反对斯大林的“五年计划”,而不愿承认其在苏联卫国保种战争中的伟大意义;盲目欢呼苏联解体,而不愿正视大英帝国的持续坍缩;盲目鼓吹自私自利的外部效用,而不愿反思亚当·斯密曾因此反对有限责任股份公司……
Adam Smith, the father of economics and the patron saint of
社会主义的持有主体应该是工人阶级。斯塔夫里阿诺斯写道:
但是信奉自由主义的中产阶级转过来却又受到了来自城市工人即无产阶级的挑战。随着18世纪后期工业革命的到来,居住在拥挤城市中的工人的阶级意识日益觉醒。他们越来越感到自己的利益与雇主的利益并不相同,他们的境遇只有通过联合行动才能得到改善。因而工人们,或者更确切地说,领导工人的知识分子,发展起了一种新的意识形态——社会主义。它直接向资产阶级的自由主义挑战,不仅提倡政治改革,同时还要求进行社会变革和经济变革。不久我们就将看到,社会主义在19世纪后期成为欧洲的一种主要力量,而在20世纪它则成为世界的主要力量。
The middle class, with its creed of liberalism, was challenged in turn by the urban workers, or proletariat. With the industrial revolution of the late eighteenth century, the workers in the crowded cities became increasingly class conscious. More and more they felt that their interests were not identical to those of their employers, and that their situation could be improved only by combined action on their part. So the workers, or rather the intellectuals who led them, developed a new ideology, socialism. Socialism directly challenged the liberalism of the bourgeoisie, calling for social and economic change as well as for political reform. We shall see that socialism was to become a major force in European affairs in the late nineteenth century and in world affairs in the twentieth.
工人阶级反击资产阶级唯利是图的贪婪放纵,积极参加企业管理,有益于发展生产力。剑桥大学韩裔教授张夏准写道:
Cutting jobs may increase productivity in the short run, but may have negative long-term consequences. Having fewer workers means increased work intensity, which makes workers tired and more prone to mistakes, lowering product quality and thus a company’s reputation. More importantly, the heightened insecurity, coming from the constant threat of job cuts, discourages workers from investing in acquiring company-specific skills, eroding the company’s productive potential.
...they just need to sell their shares, if necessary at a slight loss, as long as they are smart enough not to stick to a lost cause for too long. In contrast, it is more difficult for other stakeholders, such as workers and suppliers, to exit the company and find another engagement, because they are likely to have accumulated skills and capital equipment (in the case of the suppliers) that are specific to the companies they do business with. Therefore, they have a greater stake in the long-run viability of the company than most shareholders.
社会主义者张宏良先生,积极宣传泽东时代“两参一改三结合”等优秀经济制度,揭露抨击私有化时代以来的社会溃败,声名卓著。然而集结于“乌有之乡”网站的中国社会主义者们重人事而轻制度,无视产权理念,缺乏思想创新,因而对政权的影响极为有限。欧美的社会主义者,热衷福利,淡漠政治,坐视社会贫富分化,国家债台高筑。尤为严峻的是,人口老龄化可能击碎社会主义者的大多数信念。
农耕帝国时期,绝少民族主义观念。韩愈在《原道》中写道:“孔子之作《春秋》也,诸侯用夷礼,则夷之;进於中国,则中国之。”汉武帝时将军李陵投降匈奴,人们同情他的“风波一失所,各在天一隅”,而不苛责以民族大义:
足下又云:“汉与功臣不薄。”子为汉臣,安得不云尔乎!昔萧、樊囚絷,韩、彭菹醢,晁错受戮,周、魏见辜,其余佐命立功之士,贾谊、亚夫之徒,皆信命世之才,抱将相之具,而受小人之谗,并受祸败之辱,卒使怀才受谤,能不得展。彼二子之遐举,谁不为之痛心哉!陵先将军,功略盖天地,义勇冠三军,徒失贵臣之意,刭身绝域之表,此功臣义士所以负戟而长叹者也。何谓不薄哉! (传《李陵答苏武书》)
严复在《原强》中,更说出了一些汉奸不得已的苦衷:
曩甲午之办海防也,水底碰雷与开花弹子,有以铁滓沙泥代火药者,洋报议论,谓吾民以数金锱铢之利,虽使其国破军杀将失地丧师不顾,则中国今日之败衂,他日之危亡,不可谓为不幸矣。此其事足使闻者发指,顾何待言!然诸君亦尝循其本而为求其所以然之故与?盖自秦以降,为治虽有宽苛之异,而大抵皆以奴虏待吾民。虽有原省,原省此奴虏而己矣;虽有燠咻,燠咻此奴虏而己矣。夫上既以奴虏待民,则民亦以奴虏自待。夫奴虏之於主人,特形劫势禁,无可如何已耳,非心悦诚服,有爱於其国与主而共保持之也。故使形势可恃,国法尚行,则齅靴剺面,胡天胡帝,扬其上於至高,抑其己於至卑,皆劝为之;一旦形势既去,法所不行,则独知有利而已矣,共起而挺之,又其所也,复何怪乎!
且彼西洋所以能使其民皆若有深私至爱於其国若主,而赴公战如私仇者,则亦有道矣。法令始於下院,是民各奉其所自主之约而非率上之制也;宰相以下,皆由一国所推择,是官者,民之所设以釐百工,而非徒以尊奉仰戴者也,抚我虐我,皆非所论者矣。出赋以庀工,无异自营其田宅;趋死以杀敌,无异自卫其室家。吾每闻英之人言英,法之人言法,以至各国之人之言其生之国土,闻其名字,若我曹闻其父母之名,皆肫挚固结,若有无穷之爱也者,此其故何哉?无他,私之以为己有而已矣。是故居今之日,欲进吾民之德,於以同力合志,联一气而御外仇,则非有道焉使各私中国不可也。顾处士曰:“民不能无私也,圣人之制治也,在合天下之私以为公。”然则使各私中国奈何?曰,设议院於京师而令天下郡县各公举其守宰。是道也,欲民之忠爱必由此,欲教化之兴必由此,欲地利之尽必由此,欲道路之辟商务之兴必由此,欲民各束身自好而争濯磨於善必由此。
但当今必须明确,汉奸国贼,即使情理可恕,利益断难相容!汉奸行为是典型的“集体谬误”,即,少数人出卖团体,肯定获利;但人人叛卖,有害无益。获利的少数人,如果不能逃避异乡,最终也难免玉石俱焚。显然,民族主义,才是不能“适彼乐土”的人们之共同庇护所。蒋廷黻在《中国近代史》中,把西洋成功部分地归因于民族主义:
西洋在中古的政治局面很像中国的春秋时代,文艺复兴以后的局面很像我们的战国时代。在列强争雄的生活中,西洋人养成了热烈的爱国心,深刻的民族观念;我们则死守着家族观念和家乡观念。所以在十九世纪初年,西洋的国家虽小,然团结有如铁石之固;我们的国家虽大,然如一盘散沙,毫无力量。
斯塔夫里阿诺斯把泱泱印度沦为英国殖民地,归因于民族主义缺失:
印度也许是一个可以说明为何统治者和被统治者的不和睦会造成社会虚弱的突出的例子。印度当时仍然是一个迥然相异的民族、宗教以及相冲突的地区集团的集合体,所以它很容易成为牺牲品。在一个半世纪里,这块拥有千百万人口、灿烂文明和古老历史传统的巨大的印度次大陆一直被为数很少的英国军人和官员不太费力地统治着。当1857年反对英国统治的起义爆发时,不仅英国军队,而且印度人也前去镇压。伦敦《泰晤士报》的记者惊讶地报道了这一事实:“我对在我周围战争潮流中的这一巨大支流越来越感到惊异。所有的男人、妇女和孩子都兴高采烈地涌向勒克瑙,去帮助欧洲人制服他们的兄弟。”
India is perhaps the leading example of the extent to which lack of rapport between rulers and ruled made societies vulnerable. India was a society that had remained a disparate collection of peoples, religions, and conflicting provincial loyalties, and so it was easy prey. For over a century and a half, the great Indian subcontinent, with its teeming millions, its splendid civilization, and its ancient historical traditions, was ruled with little difficulty by a comparative handful of British officers and officials. When the mutiny against British rule broke out in 1857, it was put down not only by British troops, but also by Indian troops. The correspondent of the London Times reported this fact with astonishment: "I looked with ever-growing wonder on the vast tributary of the tide of war which was running around and before me. All these men, women and children, with high delight were pouring towards Lucknow to aid the Feringhee [Europeans] to overcome their brethren."
中国的某些学人,民族主义淡薄,毫无是非观念。例如,1637年,约翰·威德尔(John Weddell)船队闯入珠江口,抢占虎门要塞,残杀大明臣民,“端木赐香”在《那一次,我们挨打了:中英第一次鸦片战争全景解读》书中叙述此事,全用钦慕语气,并且评论道:“英国人把中国当西施了,自是不错,但中国人从未把英国人看作是范蠡。相反,他们把英国人看作是红毛鬼了。英国如此摸中国,感觉是在向它表示自己的好感;中国如此被摸,感觉对方是在向自己耍流氓。双方的认识与感觉,绝不在一个层面上!”该书谈英则赞媚,述华必嘲辱,浅薄轻浮,颠倒黑白,令人不忍卒读。
自由主义、社会主义和民族主义,三者并驾齐驱,彼此相反相成。如社会主义,既制约了自由主义向非人道反民族方向滋长,也有助于打破“马克思式剩余过剩”,从而壮大了自由主义。在某个时期内,某种主义可能居于上风。但其积弊仍将导致另外某种主义重新抬头。这种思潮的循环,可以类比中国先秦时期的文质循环:
夏之政忠。忠之敝,小人以野,故殷人承之以敬。敬之敝,小人以鬼,故周人承之以文。文之敝,小人以僿,故救僿莫若以忠。三王之道若循环,终而复始。(见《史记·高祖本纪》,意为:夏朝的政治奉行忠厚。忠厚的弊端,是使百姓粗野缺乏礼节,所以殷朝承续夏政而奉行恭敬。恭敬的弊端,是使百姓相信鬼神,所以周朝承续殷政而奉行礼仪。礼仪的弊端,是使百姓讲究文饰而情薄不诚信,所以解救不诚信的弊端莫如奉行忠厚。三王的治国之道如同循环往复,终而复始。)
中国近代以来的英才贤哲,提出许多政治理念,缤纷绚烂,然而总不出自由主义、社会主义和民族主义这“三原色”。
如孙文的三民主义,其民主主义,体现了资产阶级的参政要求,可归附于自由主义;其民生主义,可归附于社会主义及自由主义;其民族主义,最初的主体是汉族而非中华民族,尽管很快修正为“五族共和”,仍然在日本窃踞东北进程中起了某些消极作用。
如新民主主义,实质就是民族资本主义,民主政权中人员的分配,共产党员大体占三分之一,左派进步分子大体占三分之一,中间分子和其他分子大体占三分之一。
如三个代表思想,代表先进生产力,可归附为自由主义;代表最广大人民群众的最根本利益,可归附为社会主义;代表先进文化,可归附为民族主义。
能彼特最简民主定义认为,民主乃定期的公推直选。亨廷顿认为,民主只是政治扩大化的一种现象,而不具有元价值。如果政治参与过甚,甚至可能导致内溃。事实上,美国的立国基础是自由主义而非民主主义,美国的开国元勋,大多对民主颇有微辞。美国第二任总统约翰·亚当斯(John Adams)在1797年就职演说中说道:
如果任何偏见或外来事物影响到我们纯洁、自由、公正和独立的选举,使我们竟忽略了它会危害我们的自由,那么我们就是在上述那些令人高兴的见解中欺骗了自己。如果选举是以一人一票的多数票来决定胜负,那么一个政党便可能通过计谋或贿赂等不当手段获取胜利,那么这样选举出来的政府则可能成为政党为达到一党私利,而不是国家为了全国利益所做出的选择。假使其他国家的势力利用谄媚胁迫、欺诈暴力、阴谋贿赂等伎俩在这个一人一票的选举中获胜,那么这个政府就不是由美国人民选出的,而是外国的选择。那时我们将会沦为异邦统治,而不是由我们全体人民统治。正直的人们将会感觉到,在这种情况下选举就与赌博相差无几了。
In the midst of these pleasing ideas we should be unfaithful to ourselves if we should ever lose sight of the danger to our liberties if anything partial or extraneous should infect the purity of our free, fair, virtuous, and independent elections. If an election is to be determined by a majority of a single vote, and that can be procured by a party through artifice or corruption, the Government may be the choice of a party for its own ends, not of the nation for the national good. If that solitary suffrage can be obtained by foreign nations by flattery or menaces, by fraud or violence, by terror, intrigue, or venality, the Government may not be the choice of the American people, but of foreign nations. It may be foreign nations who govern us, and not we, the people, who govern ourselves; and candid men will acknowledge that in such cases choice would have little advantage to boast of over lot or chance.
民主是个好技术,完全可以在选民、央地、权限等方面百花齐放。
(20111012)
附一:欧洲的政治革命(Stavrianos)
19世纪欧洲对世界的支配不仅建立在其工业革命和科学革命的基础上,政治革命也构成其基础之一。政治革命的实质是,它终结了人类分成统治者和被统治者是由神注定的这种观念。人们不再认为政治高于人民,也不再认为人民处于政府之下。政治革命有史以来第一次在一个比城邦更大的规模上显示出,政治和人民是密不可分的——民众已觉醒并行动起来,不仅参与了政治,而且将此视为自己固有的权利。在本章中,我们将考察欧洲政治革命的一般情形,英国革命、美国革命和法国革命的起因以及19世纪欧洲政治革命的各种表现形式及其世界性影响。
一、政治革命的格局
同经济革命一样,政治革命也是分为几个阶段发展起来的。如前所述,经济革命始于英国,而后扩展到欧洲大陆和美国,最后则扩展到世界其他地区。政治革命也一样:17世纪的英国革命标志着其开端,随后的美国革命和法国革命标志着其进一步发展,接着它在19世纪影响了整个欧洲,最后它则在20世纪席卷了整个世界。
经济革命和政治革命的并行发展并不是偶然的,实际上这两次革命息息相关。而且在很大程度上可以说是经济革命决定着政治革命,因为它产生了一个有新利益、有使其利益合理化的新意识形态的新阶级。其实我们只要简要地追溯一下经济革命和政治革命的一般过程,就会对这一点看得很清楚。
在中世纪初期西欧存在着三个界限分明的社会集团:组成军事贵族阶层的贵族、构成教会和知识显贵集团的教士和以自己的劳动供养以上两个阶级的农民。随着商业的发展,这种状况由于一个新成分即城市资产阶级的出现而开始改变。随着这一阶级在财富和人数上的增长,它对各封建阶层的特权和妨碍自由市场经济发展的许多限制变得日益不满。于是它就与民族君主政权结成了一个互惠的联盟:国王们从资产阶级那里获得财政支援,以维护其对各封建阶层的权威,而资产阶级则从整个王国建立法律和秩序这一点中获益。这种联盟一直持续到不断成长的中产阶级感到厌烦时为止——他们为了摆脱王室对商业的种种限制,摆脱日渐增加的赋税,摆脱对宗教信仰自由的种种限制,转而起来反对国王。中产阶级的这些目标是英国革命、美国革命和法国革命中的重要因素,而这些革命的成功也意味着古典自由主义——为资产阶级的利益和目标提供了合理解释的新的意识形态——的成功。在这一意义上,自由主义也许可被称为不断壮大的中产阶级打算借以获得它所指望得到的利益和权力的特殊纲领。
但是信奉自由主义的中产阶级转过来却又受到了来自城市工人即无产阶级的挑战。随着18世纪后期工业革命的到来,居住在拥挤城市中的工人的阶级意识日益觉醒。他们越来越感到自己的利益与雇主的利益并不相同,他们的境遇只有通过联合行动才能得到改善。因而工人们,或者更确切地说,领导工人的知识分子,发展起了一种新的意识形态——社会主义。它直接向资产阶级的自由主义挑战,不仅提倡政治改革,同时还要求进行社会变革和经济变革。不久我们就将看到,社会主义在19世纪后期成为欧洲的一种主要力量,而在20世纪它则成为世界的主要力量。
赋予欧洲政治革命动力的不仅有自由主义和社会主义这些充满活力的信念,还有民族主义——一种影响到各个阶级并能动员起广大人民群众的意识形态。人们在传统上首先效忠的一向是地区或教会,而到近代初期效忠的对象则扩大到了新的民族君主身上。但是从英国革命开始,特别是在法国革命期间,越来越多的欧洲人都效忠于新的民族事业。民族教会、民族王朝、民族军队和民族教育制度相继兴起——所有这一切结合起来就把从前公爵领地的属民、封建农奴和城市市民改变成了涵盖一切的民族。新的民族主义在19世纪里从其发源地西欧传播到整个欧洲大陆,而到了20世纪它又成为促使全世界殖民地民族觉醒的推动力量。
这三种主义——自由主义、社会主义和民族主义——是欧洲政治革命的主要成分。它们共同激励着欧洲各民族越来越多的阶层行动起来,并赋予这些阶层以世界上任何地区都无法与之相比的推动力和凝聚力。这样,政治革命就同科学革命和经济革命一道对欧洲统治世界发挥了关键作用。当欧洲人开始向海外扩张时,他们遇到了统治者和被统治者之间关系不怎么和谐的一些社会。民众的冷淡——他们缺乏对自己政府的认同感——可以解释欧洲人为何能够轻松地在一个又一个地区建立并维持他们的统治。印度也许是一个可以说明为何统治者和被统治者的不和睦会造成社会虚弱的突出的例子。印度当时仍然是一个迥然相异的民族、宗教以及相冲突的地区集团的集合体,所以它很容易成为牺牲品。在一个半世纪里,这块拥有千百万人口、灿烂文明和古老历史传统的巨大的印度次大陆一直被为数很少的英国军人和官员不太费力地统治着。当1857年反对英国统治的起义爆发时,不仅英国军队,而且印度人也前去镇压。伦敦《泰晤士报》的记者惊讶地报道了这一事实:“我对在我周围战争潮流中的这一巨大支流越来越感到惊异。所有的男人、妇女和孩子都兴高采烈地涌向勒克瑙,去帮助欧洲人制服他们的兄弟。”
但是,欧洲的政治控制和经济控制必然意味着欧洲政治思想的传播。正如整个世界都曾感受过史蒂芬孙的机车、富尔顿的汽船和加特林的机枪的影响一样,它也感受到了《独立宣言》、《人权和公民权宣言》(简称《人权宣言》)和《共产党宣言》的影响。那些已经成为我们当代标志的世界性动乱都是这些激动人心的文件的直接结果。
Europe's Political Revolutions
When individuals and nations have once got in their heads the abstract concept of full-blown liberty, there is nothing like it in its uncontrollable strength. G. W. F. Hegel
Europe's domination of the world in the nineteenth century was based not only on its industrial and scientific revolutions but also on its political revolution. The essence of the political revolution was the end of the concept of a divinely ordained division of people into rulers and ruled. Government was no longer regarded as something above the people and the people as something below the government. Instead, the political revolution for the first time in history, at least on a scale larger than the city-state, called for the identification of government with people. The masses were awakened and activized so that they not only participated in government but also considered it their inherent right to do so. In this chapter we shall consider the general pattern of this political revolution, its origins in the English, American, and French revolutions, and its varied manifestations and worldwide impact during the nineteenth century.
I. PATTERN OF THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION
The political revolution, like the economic, developed in several stages. We noted that the economic revolution began in England, spread to the Continent and to the United States, and later to other parts of the globe. Likewise, the political revolution got under way with the English Revolution in the seventeenth century, developed much further with the American and French revolutions that followed, next affected the whole of Europe during the nineteenth century, and finally engulfed the entire globe during the twentieth.
The parallel course in the spread of the two revolutions was not accidental; indeed, the two were intimately related. The economic revolution was in large degree responsible for the political because it created new classes with new interests and with new ideologies that rationalized those interests. We will see this more clearly as we trace briefly the general course of the economic and political revolutions.
During the early medieva1 period, there were three well-defined social groups in western Europe: the nobility, who constituted a military aristocracy; the clergy, who formed an ecclesiastical and intellectual elite; and the peasants, who labored to support the two upper classes. With the development of commerce, the profile of the medieva1 social order began gradually to change with the appearance of a new element, the urban bourgeoisie. As this class grew in wealth and numbers, it became more and more discontented with the special privileges of the feudal orders and with the numerous restrictions that hampered the development of a free-market economy. Accordingly, the bourgeoisie made a mutually beneficial alliance with the national monarchies. The kings obtained financial support from the bourgeoisie and so were able to assert their authority over the feudal orders. The bourgeoisie in return profited from the establishment of law and order throughout the royal domains. The alliance lasted until it became irksome for the constantly growing middle class. Then the middle class turned against the kings to free itself from royal restrictions on commerce, from a growing burden of taxation, and from restraints on religious freedom. These objectives were important factors in the English, American, and French revolutions. The success of these revolutions also meant the success of classical liberalism -- the new ideology that provided a rationalization for bourgeois interests and objectives. In this sense, liberalism may be defined as the particular program by which the growing middle class proposed to get for itself the benefits and control it was aiming for.
The middle class, with its creed of liberalism, was challenged in turn by the urban workers, or proletariat. With the industrial revolution of the late eighteenth century, the workers in the crowded cities became increasingly class conscious. More and more they felt that their interests were not identical to those of their employers, and that their situation could be improved only by combined action on their part. So the workers, or rather the intellectuals who led them, developed a new ideology, socialism. Socialism directly challenged the liberalism of the bourgeoisie, calling for social and economic change as well as for political reform. We shall see that socialism was to become a major force in European affairs in the late nineteenth century and in world affairs in the twentieth.
Europe's political revolution was powered not only by the dynamic creeds of liberalism and socialism, but also by nationalism -- an ideology that cut across classes and activated great masses of people. Traditionally the first allegiance of these people had been to region or to church. In early modern times it had extended to the new national monarchs. But beginning with the English Revolution, and particularly during the French Revolution, increasing numbers of Europeans gave their loyalty to the new cause of the nation. The rise of national churches, national dynasties, national armies, and national educational systems all combined to transform former ducal subjects, feudal serfs, and town burghers into all-inclusive nations. The new national ideology spread during the nineteenth century from western Europe, where it originated, to all parts of the Continent. Today, in the twentieth century, it is the driving force behind the awakening of formerly subject colonial peoples throughout the world.
These three creeds -- liberalism, socialism, and nationalism -- are the principal components of Europe's political revolution. Together they galvanized into action broader and broader strata of the peoples of Europe, giving them a dynamism and a cohesiveness unequaled in any other portion of the globe. In this way the political revolution, like the scientific and the economic revolutions, contributed vitally to Europe's world domination. When the Europeans began to expand overseas, they encountered societies where there was little rapport between rulers and ruled. The apathy of the masses -- their lack of identification with their governments -- explains why in region after region the Europeans were able to establish and to maintain their rule with little difficulty. India is perhaps the leading example of the extent to which lack of rapport between rulers and ruled made societies vulnerable. India was a society that had remained a disparate collection of peoples, religions, and conflicting provincial loyalties, and so it was easy prey. For over a century and a half, the great Indian subcontinent, with its teeming millions, its splendid civilization, and its ancient historical traditions, was ruled with little difficulty by a comparative handful of British officers and officials. When the mutiny against British rule broke out in 1857, it was put down not only by British troops, but also by Indian troops. The correspondent of the London Times reported this fact with astonishment: "I looked with ever-growing wonder on the vast tributary of the tide of war which was running around and before me. All these men, women and children, with high delight were pouring towards Lucknow to aid the Feringhee [Europeans] to overcome their brethren."
But European political and economic domination inevitably meant the diffusion of European political ideas. Just as the entire globe felt the impact of Stephenson's locomotive, of Fulton's steamship, and Gatling's machine gun, so it felt the impact of the Declaration of Independence, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, and the Communist Manifesto. The worldwide convulsions that are the hallmark of our present age are the direct outcome of these heady documents.
附二:民族主义是最强大的政治力量(参考消息,2011年7月20日)
文章认为,过去两个世纪以来,民族主义是世界上最强大的政治力量。民族渴望拥有自己的国家,国家渴望在民众中培养共同的民族身份。这两种动力合起来就形成了一种长期的趋势,造就了越来越多的独立的民族国家
【美国《外交政策》双月刊网站7月15日文章】题:民族主义一统天下(作者 哈佛大学约翰·肯尼迪政治学院教授斯蒂芬·沃尔特)
世界上最强大的政治力量是什么?一些人可能会说是债券市场,还有人可能提到宗教的夏兴或民主人权的迸步,或者还有可能是以互联网以及和互联网一同出现的事物为代表的数字科技。或者你认为是核武器以及核武器带来的种种影响。
以上选项都值得一提,但是我个人对世界上最强大力量的选择是民族主义,即认为人类是由许多不同的文化群体所组成的——也就是一个个有着共同的语言、符号以及对历史的表述(这些表述总是为自身利益服务且充满了神话)的群体——同时这些群体应该拥有自己的国家的观点。过去两个世纪以来,这种观点一直是世界上最强大的力量。
推动现代国际政治演进
近代,正是民族主义巩固了大多数欧洲列强,把它们从一个个王朝国家变为民族国家,也正是民族主义意识形态的传播帮助摧毁了大英帝国、法兰西帝国、奥斯曼帝国、荷兰帝国、葡萄牙帝国、奥匈帝国和俄罗斯帝国(以及苏联)。民族主义是联合国在1945年成立之初只有51个成员国而到了今天却有近200个成员国的主要原因。民族主义是犹太复国主义者希望建立一个犹太国家以及今天巴勒斯坦人希望成立一个自己的国家的原因。它也是冷战时期促使越南人击败法国和美国军队的原因。它也是库尔德人和车臣人仍然希望建国、苏格兰人要求在联合王国内获得更大自主权以及现在南苏丹共和国成立的原因。
通过对民族主义强大力量的了解,我们也懂得了今天在欧盟发生的种种事情。冷战期间,欧洲一体化进程有了蓬勃的发展,这是因为它是在温室中诞生的,得到了美国的保护。然而到了今天,美国失去了对欧洲安全的兴趣,欧洲人要面对的外来威胁也屈指可数,欧盟扩张的步伐走得过大,事先没有经过充分协商就建立起一个货币联盟的做法也做过了头。因此,我们今天所看到的就是欧洲的外交政策逐渐回归到国家手中,这既是因为各国的经济偏好彼此不相适应,也是因为各国又开始担心地方身份(也就是民族身份)正受到威胁。丹麦人担心穆斯林,加泰罗尼亚人要求自治,佛兰芒人和瓦龙人在比利时你争我夺,德国人拒绝拯救希腊,没有人希望土耳其加入欧盟,这就是民族主义在作祟。
民族主义的力量很容易被现实主义者所理解,正如我的合作人约翰·米尔斯海默在一篇重要的新作中所指出的。各个民族因为是在一个竞争的、有时又是危险的世界里求生,所以总是试图维护其身份和文化价值观。很多例子说明,最好的办法就是建立自己的国家,这是因为那些没有自己国家的种族或民族常常会被征服、被融合和被同化。
同样,现代的国家也有很强的动机去推动民族的统一换句话说就是培育民族主义——因为假使国家拥有一群忠诚而又团结的人愿意为国牺牲,那么国家的实力和应对外部威胁的能力就会大大增强。总之,在一个国际政治派别争夺激烈的世界里,民族渴望拥有自己的国家,国家渴望在民众中培养共同的民族身份。这两种动力合起来就形成了一种长期的趋势,造就了越来越多的独立的民族国家。
民族主义运动不可逆转
显然,民族和国家并不总是能实现建立一个统一的“民族国家”的目标。一些民族从未获得过独立,一些国家也无法形成一个统一的民族身份。而且也并非每一个文化或种族群体都认为自己是一个民族或者渴望实现独立(尽管我们并不知道某个群体何时才开始获得这种“民族意识”并为之奋斗)。不管怎样,在过去的几百年里,国家的数量不断增加,许多国家都出现了强大的民族主义运动,我认为这一趋势不可能逆转。
一旦建立,民族国家就成为一个自我强化的现象。民族国家很难被征服,因为本土的民众往往会抵御外来入侵.并不断反抗外国占领者。成功的民族主义运动往往会成为后来者模仿的对象,从而使人更有建立国家的要求。尽管有时也会有些问题(显然还有一些“失败国家”的例子如索马里、也门或阿富汗),但是在可以预见的未来,民族国家仍将是世界政坛最重要的政治实体。
由于美国的民族身份往往侧重于公民领域,而且往往低估了历史和文化的因素(尽管也有这些因素存在),所以美国领导人常常低估了本土亲和力的力量以及文化忠诚度、种族忠诚度或抵御忠诚度的力量。冷战期间,我们常常夸大了跨国家的意识形态如共产主义的力量,而低估了民族身份和民族利益最终将会在信奉马克思主义的国家里引发激烈的冲突。
本·拉丹也犯了同样的错误,他以为恐怖主义袭击和几盘斥责异教徒的录像带会点燃群众运动,从而重新建立一个跨民族的伊斯兰王国。
任何认为崛起的中国会顺从地屈服于美国或西方的世界秩序理念的人忽视了民族主义也是中国人世界观的核心组成内容,远比渐渐消失的“共产主义”理想重要得多。
总之,除非我们能充分认识到民族主义的力量,否则我们将在很多现代政治事务上犯下大错。它是世界上最强大的政治力量,无视这一点就将惹来大祸。
http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/07/15/the_enduring_power_of_nationalism?page=full
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